After months of anticipation, Pope Francis’s visit to Canada was made in late July. In response to growing pressure to apologize for the Catholic Church’s role in the Canadian residential school system, the 85-year-old religious figure toured Edmonton, Quebec, and Iqaluit to meet with government officials and indigenous community leaders.
Accompanied by two Canadian Cardinals, Francis’s trip marks the most public acknowledgment of the Church’s wrongdoing in regards to the residential school system to date. The past year has put the Vatican under renewed scrutiny for its participation, prompted by the grim discovery of several mass graves where these schools once stood. While there is a sense that the Pope’s visit is a step in the right direction, some believe that his visit and apology do not go far enough.
Renewed Focus on Residential Schools
The Indian residential school system is a shameful part of Canadian history. The program provided government money to build and operate boarding schools to forcibly assimilate indigenous children into Canadian society. Enrollment in these schools was mandatory for indigenous children from the 1890s through the 1940s, and such schools continued to operate until the last one was closed in 1997.
Under this program, children were forcibly separated from their families, deprived of their culture, and subjected to numerous abuses. Tragically, these facilities were often rampant with disease. The poor sanitary conditions led to the deaths of thousands of children over the years. While this was known, this dark chapter had largely been buried until mass graves were uncovered in late 2021.
Increased scrutiny has put the Vatican under fire. As part of the Indian residential school system, the Canadian government disbursed funds to religious organizations to administer the program. With Catholicism having a strong presence in Canada, Indian residential schools were disproportionately under the jurisdiction of Catholic parishes.
Francis’s Visit vs. The Vatican
The resulting media attention that followed the discovery of the mass graves proved too strong to ignore. Indigenous leaders demanded a public apology from the Vatican, and ultimately arranged an audience with the Pope himself in Vatican City to air their grievances.
During the meeting, Francis grabbed headlines by extending a personal apology to the delegation of indigenous leaders. While his personal acknowledgement of the Church’s wrongdoing was applauded, it did not equate to an official apology from the Vatican itself.
The distinction between the Pope and Vatican’s respective positions was met with criticism by activists, and while his recent tour of Canada featured further expressions of sorrow, many activists feel more needs to be done.
Many activists felt that Francis’s apology failed to be specific about the scope and nature of the abuses suffered by indigenous children. Additionally, some argued that his apology put too much focus on individuals and not enough focus on the Church as an institution.
Interestingly enough, the Canadian government seems to echo this sentiment. Canada already issued a public apology in 2008 for its role in the atrocities, and now Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has called for the Catholic Church itself to acknowledge its participation.
What We Can Learn Francis’s Visit
The atrocities committed during Canada’s residential school program are bigger than individuals. They are the culmination of broader beliefs and incentives, put forth by large institutions.
While it is true that individuals bear responsibility, individual accountability is not enough to make amends. Institutional acknowledgement and accountability are necessary because they require a reexamination of beliefs and practices. In order to truly atone and build a better future, powerful institutions must be reformed and rid themselves of the beliefs that underscored their wrongdoing.
Pope Francis has taken steps in the right direction, but the world waits for more action.
With the renewed focus on Canada’s history of forced assimilation against indigenous people, many are striving to learn more about their history and heritage.
The landmass now known as Canada was settled around 14,000 years ago. Evidence suggests that nomadic settlers reached Canada by crossing a land bridge revealed by a melting glacier. These nomads relied on herds of ancient mammals as a food source, and this new land bridge greatly expanded their hunting grounds.
Over time, indigenous Canadians would develop permanent settlements, agricultural practices, and vibrant societies. The rich and diverse cultures of Canada’s indigenous peoples are dispersed across three groups: Inuit, Metis, and the First Nations people.
European contact brought Catholicism to Canada. Sadly, the influence of European settlers culminated in a campaign of forced assimilation. Largely administered by Catholic churches, Canada’s residential school system sought to eliminate the culture and spiritual base of the indigenous tribes.
This policy has been the source of ongoing generational trauma. Additionally, it robbed the nation of the perspectives offered by alternative belief systems. Part of the process of healing and reconciliation requires a validation of indigenous spirituality and the richness it has to offer.
Key Ideas in Indigenous Spirituality
First, one must understand that the beliefs of the Inuit, Metis and First Nations people are not monolithic. In fact, the spiritual practices of these communities are as varied as the people themselves. Upon closer examination, though, consistent themes begin to emerge. As with any spiritual system, indigenous spirituality is multifaceted. Creation myths, spiritual practices, and Great Spirits are critical to understanding the principles of spirituality for the indigenous peoples of Canada.
Creation Myths
Much like other religions across the world, indigenous belief systems begin with stories about how the world came to be. The sacredness of the Earth is a common theme in the indigenous worldview, and this can be seen in their creation stories.
Among the First Nations, Inuit, and Metis people, various versions of the “Diver Myth” can be found. Passed down via oral tradition, this story tells of a protagonist who takes it upon themselves to bring the earth into existence. Depending on the community, this hero can take many forms. They can be supernatural, human, or even a combination of the two.
In the Diver narrative, the waters of the Earth are already present. The hero in the story dives down into the depths to retrieve mud and then fashions Earth from it.
Practices and Ceremonies
The institutions and practices that guide indigenous peoples are also diverse. However, what such practices hold in common is their relationship to Earth’s sacredness. For example, the Sun Dance is a sacred practice for First Nations people in Canada’s prairie regions. This midsummer festival was a community effort to pray for good fortune from the Earth that provided them life.
Great Spirits
The idea of a Great Spirit can be found across communities of indigenous people. While similar to the idea of God in Western traditions, the idea of a Great Spirit tends to be more abstract and less subject to wrath.
Much of indigenous spirituality is comfortable with the idea of uncertainty. Rather than doubling down on the idea that God is static, unchanging, and all-knowing, indigenous belief systems acknowledge the existence of a creator whose true nature can never be fully known. This idea is also known as the Great Mystery.
Spiritual practices are key to the way that societies interact with the world. As Canada looks to reexamine its history, expanding its capacity for belief and incorporating more perspectives into its worldview can create a richer experience for all.
Before it was a US national emblem, the Bald Eagle held special significance within the religious beliefs and legends of several Indigenous cultures.
Eagles are commonly regarded as majestic and powerful creatures. As birds of prey, they’re members of the order Accipitriformes, which also includes many other types of raptors such as hawks, kites, and ospreys. They have captured humankind’s imagination for millennia, as proven by myths from around the world as well as the bald eagle’s place as a recognizable symbol for the United States. Yet before this bird was chosen as a US national emblem, it held special significance within the religious beliefs and legends of several Indigenous American cultures.
The Eagle’s Significance in Pre-Colonial America
Eagles can be found in the stories of many civilizations all over Turtle Island. Most bestowed honored tasks and roles upon these birds, crediting them as divine messengers or chiefs among the birds. In an article discussing the bald eagle’s recovery from near extinction, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service offered a short list of these legends:
One Navajo story depicts a warrior changing one of a slain monster’s offspring into an eagle to prevent it from growing up and adopting evil ways.
Among the Dene peoples of Alaska and northwestern Canada, the eagle embodies gratitude in its offerings of food during lean times to a prince who’d fed it salmon when sustenance was plentiful.
The Pawnee regard the eagle as a fertility symbol thanks to its tendency to nest high above the ground and its attentive watch over its young.
An archived 2003 piece from Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center details even more evidence. Various artifacts have been discovered showing how Indigenous cultures venerated eagles, including their features in headdresses and other clothing items.
An Endangered Species Returns to Greatness
Rachel Carson’s 1962 book “Silent Spring” called attention to the devastating effects of careless pesticide use on our ecosystems. Writing for American Bird Conservancy, Rebecca Heisman discusses how Carson’s emphasis on DDT’s impacts on bird populations helped launch environmental activity and new government policies. The bald eagle was one species that benefitted from these activities, as it was granted legal protections in 1978. Thanks to the growth of its populations, it was removed from the endangered species list in 2007.
Modern Use of Eagle Feathers
Eagle feathers are still considered sacred today by many Indigenous people. As one Mohawk man explained to independent historian Glenn Welker, wearing or holding these feathers is thought to honor, and gains attention from, the Divine. Feathers are also included in ceremonial regalia and used in the Sun Dance rites of Great Plains cultures to carry prayers of the sick to the Creator. The Pawnee Nation’s website explains the significance of eagle feathers in how its flag is displayed. This banner is customarily attached to an old Pawnee lance with a spearhead at its tip. Affixed to it are four eagle feathers, representing the four bands that comprise the entire nation.
Currently, U.S. federal laws govern the possession and use of eagle feathers. However, they restrict ownership to individuals who can prove that they’re members of federally recognized tribes. Continued controversy surrounds these statutes, especially because those unable to document their Native ancestry are shut out of the process. A June 2015 Arizona Public Media piece also divulges that the waiting list for eagle feathers is lengthy, with potential recipients getting their requested feathers after several months.
A Magnificent Bird With Timeless Symbolism
The American bald eagle holds a distinctive place in many Indigenous American cultures. Once threatened with possible extinction, this species has made a major comeback over the last several decades. Contemporary legal realities pose challenges for Native people wishing to use their feathers for ceremonial and religious purposes. Nevertheless, reverence for the creatures continues into the 21st century.
Studying the Turtle Island story leads to some fascinating discoveries about both Indigenous peoples from the past as well as those in North America today.
Long before Canada became the country we know, Indigenous peoples flourished across the North American continent. From the Mi’kmaq groups near the shores of Cape Spear, to the Tlingit living around Mount Saint Elias, many distinct cultures descended from this land’s earliest inhabitants. As they developed into the Inuit and First Nations civilizations that were present when Europeans first arrived, some of these cultures told creation stories about a land known as Turtle Island. Studying the Turtle Island concept and story leads to some fascinating discoveries about both Indigenous peoples from the past, as well as those in North America today.
The Origins of Turtle Island
Multiple Indigenous civilizations told stories in which the known world was called “Turtle Island.” The Turtle Island Native Network retells one common version from the Onondaga, one of the five original Iroquois nations. In many versions of the story, the ancient world is entirely comprised of oceans. Sky Woman falls through a hole in the heavens that was left behind from an uprooted tree. In their attempt to save her life, the creatures living in Earth’s waters dive deep beneath its surface to retrieve some dirt upon which she can stand. Turtle volunteers to carry the dirt on his back, completing Sky Woman’s rescue.
While the Iroquois versions are the most widely known, several other cultures’ mythos also contain Turtle Island stories:
The Lenape people of the Northeastern Woodlands region
Anishinaabe civilizations such as the Ojibwe and Potawatomi, and Algonquin
Cheyenne cultures in the Great Plains region of the United States
While the concept of a massive turtle carrying the world on its back can also be found in older Sanskrit and Chinese texts, it holds the most prominent place among Indigenous American groups. Furthermore, the Mayans developed a similar myth about Zipacna, a conceited and violent oversized crocodile thought to carry their land on his back and cause volcanic and seismic activity as he moved. In contrast, Turtle Island legends tend to portray the giant turtles as helpful, benevolent beings.
Turtle Island in a Modern Context
Within the last few decades, “Turtle Island” has grown beyond a concept from Indigenous mythology and morphed into one with deeper symbolic meaning. Citing the desire to reclaim older cultural roots and acknowledge the sovereignty of Native civilizations prior to European colonialism, some use the term Turtle Island instead of North America. The America name originally derived from Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, but there were Native civilizations living in these lands long before Vespucci started exploring. The Manataka American Indian Council explains that some Indigenous people also use the term “Niiji” to refer to themselves in place of the word “Indian,” the latter being a moniker mistakenly given to Natives by Europeans believing that they’d landed in India.
The term “Turtle Island” has fallen into more widespread use as it’s being increasingly linked to Indigenous civil rights and environmental activism. One example mentioned in a June 2017 CBC article cites a grassroots group of First Nations activists mentioning “a crisis situation…on Turtle Island.” The activists staged a protest, calling for Canadians to address deeper issues from assimilation, colonization, and colonialism as Canada Day approached. Additionally, Native organizations such as the Indigenous Environmental Network and initiatives like the Turtle Island Solidarity Journey continue to focus on solutions to climate change while drawing attention to their connections to colonialism and environmental racism.
An Old Legend With New Interpretations
Indigenous cultures across North American either developed their own cosmogonic mythos to explain the universe’s origins or borrowed these beliefs from their neighbors. Within many of these civilizations, Turtle Island began as a creation story. With the impacts of European colonialism leading to both modern environmental concerns and civil rights issues, Turtle Island now holds potent symbolic meaning for many Indigenous people today.
After months of anticipation, Pope Francis’s visit to Canada was made in late July. In response to growing pressure to apologize for the Catholic Church’s role in the Canadian residential school system, the 85-year-old religious figure toured Edmonton, Quebec, and Iqaluit to meet with government officials and indigenous community leaders.
Accompanied by two Canadian Cardinals, Francis’s trip marks the most public acknowledgment of the Church’s wrongdoing in regards to the residential school system to date. The past year has put the Vatican under renewed scrutiny for its participation, prompted by the grim discovery of several mass graves where these schools once stood. While there is a sense that the Pope’s visit is a step in the right direction, some believe that his visit and apology do not go far enough.
Renewed Focus on Residential Schools
The Indian residential school system is a shameful part of Canadian history. The program provided government money to build and operate boarding schools to forcibly assimilate indigenous children into Canadian society. Enrollment in these schools was mandatory for indigenous children from the 1890s through the 1940s, and such schools continued to operate until the last one was closed in 1997.
Under this program, children were forcibly separated from their families, deprived of their culture, and subjected to numerous abuses. Tragically, these facilities were often rampant with disease. The poor sanitary conditions led to the deaths of thousands of children over the years. While this was known, this dark chapter had largely been buried until mass graves were uncovered in late 2021.
Increased scrutiny has put the Vatican under fire. As part of the Indian residential school system, the Canadian government disbursed funds to religious organizations to administer the program. With Catholicism having a strong presence in Canada, Indian residential schools were disproportionately under the jurisdiction of Catholic parishes.
Francis’s Visit vs. The Vatican
The resulting media attention that followed the discovery of the mass graves proved too strong to ignore. Indigenous leaders demanded a public apology from the Vatican, and ultimately arranged an audience with the Pope himself in Vatican City to air their grievances.
During the meeting, Francis grabbed headlines by extending a personal apology to the delegation of indigenous leaders. While his personal acknowledgement of the Church’s wrongdoing was applauded, it did not equate to an official apology from the Vatican itself.
The distinction between the Pope and Vatican’s respective positions was met with criticism by activists, and while his recent tour of Canada featured further expressions of sorrow, many activists feel more needs to be done.
Many activists felt that Francis’s apology failed to be specific about the scope and nature of the abuses suffered by indigenous children. Additionally, some argued that his apology put too much focus on individuals and not enough focus on the Church as an institution.
Interestingly enough, the Canadian government seems to echo this sentiment. Canada already issued a public apology in 2008 for its role in the atrocities, and now Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has called for the Catholic Church itself to acknowledge its participation.
What We Can Learn Francis’s Visit
The atrocities committed during Canada’s residential school program are bigger than individuals. They are the culmination of broader beliefs and incentives, put forth by large institutions.
While it is true that individuals bear responsibility, individual accountability is not enough to make amends. Institutional acknowledgement and accountability are necessary because they require a reexamination of beliefs and practices. In order to truly atone and build a better future, powerful institutions must be reformed and rid themselves of the beliefs that underscored their wrongdoing.
Pope Francis has taken steps in the right direction, but the world waits for more action.
With the renewed focus on Canada’s history of forced assimilation against indigenous people, many are striving to learn more about their history and heritage.
The landmass now known as Canada was settled around 14,000 years ago. Evidence suggests that nomadic settlers reached Canada by crossing a land bridge revealed by a melting glacier. These nomads relied on herds of ancient mammals as a food source, and this new land bridge greatly expanded their hunting grounds.
Over time, indigenous Canadians would develop permanent settlements, agricultural practices, and vibrant societies. The rich and diverse cultures of Canada’s indigenous peoples are dispersed across three groups: Inuit, Metis, and the First Nations people.
European contact brought Catholicism to Canada. Sadly, the influence of European settlers culminated in a campaign of forced assimilation. Largely administered by Catholic churches, Canada’s residential school system sought to eliminate the culture and spiritual base of the indigenous tribes.
This policy has been the source of ongoing generational trauma. Additionally, it robbed the nation of the perspectives offered by alternative belief systems. Part of the process of healing and reconciliation requires a validation of indigenous spirituality and the richness it has to offer.
Key Ideas in Indigenous Spirituality
First, one must understand that the beliefs of the Inuit, Metis and First Nations people are not monolithic. In fact, the spiritual practices of these communities are as varied as the people themselves. Upon closer examination, though, consistent themes begin to emerge. As with any spiritual system, indigenous spirituality is multifaceted. Creation myths, spiritual practices, and Great Spirits are critical to understanding the principles of spirituality for the indigenous peoples of Canada.
Creation Myths
Much like other religions across the world, indigenous belief systems begin with stories about how the world came to be. The sacredness of the Earth is a common theme in the indigenous worldview, and this can be seen in their creation stories.
Among the First Nations, Inuit, and Metis people, various versions of the “Diver Myth” can be found. Passed down via oral tradition, this story tells of a protagonist who takes it upon themselves to bring the earth into existence. Depending on the community, this hero can take many forms. They can be supernatural, human, or even a combination of the two.
In the Diver narrative, the waters of the Earth are already present. The hero in the story dives down into the depths to retrieve mud and then fashions Earth from it.
Practices and Ceremonies
The institutions and practices that guide indigenous peoples are also diverse. However, what such practices hold in common is their relationship to Earth’s sacredness. For example, the Sun Dance is a sacred practice for First Nations people in Canada’s prairie regions. This midsummer festival was a community effort to pray for good fortune from the Earth that provided them life.
Great Spirits
The idea of a Great Spirit can be found across communities of indigenous people. While similar to the idea of God in Western traditions, the idea of a Great Spirit tends to be more abstract and less subject to wrath.
Much of indigenous spirituality is comfortable with the idea of uncertainty. Rather than doubling down on the idea that God is static, unchanging, and all-knowing, indigenous belief systems acknowledge the existence of a creator whose true nature can never be fully known. This idea is also known as the Great Mystery.
Spiritual practices are key to the way that societies interact with the world. As Canada looks to reexamine its history, expanding its capacity for belief and incorporating more perspectives into its worldview can create a richer experience for all.
Before it was a US national emblem, the Bald Eagle held special significance within the religious beliefs and legends of several Indigenous cultures.
Eagles are commonly regarded as majestic and powerful creatures. As birds of prey, they’re members of the order Accipitriformes, which also includes many other types of raptors such as hawks, kites, and ospreys. They have captured humankind’s imagination for millennia, as proven by myths from around the world as well as the bald eagle’s place as a recognizable symbol for the United States. Yet before this bird was chosen as a US national emblem, it held special significance within the religious beliefs and legends of several Indigenous American cultures.
The Eagle’s Significance in Pre-Colonial America
Eagles can be found in the stories of many civilizations all over Turtle Island. Most bestowed honored tasks and roles upon these birds, crediting them as divine messengers or chiefs among the birds. In an article discussing the bald eagle’s recovery from near extinction, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service offered a short list of these legends:
One Navajo story depicts a warrior changing one of a slain monster’s offspring into an eagle to prevent it from growing up and adopting evil ways.
Among the Dene peoples of Alaska and northwestern Canada, the eagle embodies gratitude in its offerings of food during lean times to a prince who’d fed it salmon when sustenance was plentiful.
The Pawnee regard the eagle as a fertility symbol thanks to its tendency to nest high above the ground and its attentive watch over its young.
An archived 2003 piece from Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center details even more evidence. Various artifacts have been discovered showing how Indigenous cultures venerated eagles, including their features in headdresses and other clothing items.
An Endangered Species Returns to Greatness
Rachel Carson’s 1962 book “Silent Spring” called attention to the devastating effects of careless pesticide use on our ecosystems. Writing for American Bird Conservancy, Rebecca Heisman discusses how Carson’s emphasis on DDT’s impacts on bird populations helped launch environmental activity and new government policies. The bald eagle was one species that benefitted from these activities, as it was granted legal protections in 1978. Thanks to the growth of its populations, it was removed from the endangered species list in 2007.
Modern Use of Eagle Feathers
Eagle feathers are still considered sacred today by many Indigenous people. As one Mohawk man explained to independent historian Glenn Welker, wearing or holding these feathers is thought to honor, and gains attention from, the Divine. Feathers are also included in ceremonial regalia and used in the Sun Dance rites of Great Plains cultures to carry prayers of the sick to the Creator. The Pawnee Nation’s website explains the significance of eagle feathers in how its flag is displayed. This banner is customarily attached to an old Pawnee lance with a spearhead at its tip. Affixed to it are four eagle feathers, representing the four bands that comprise the entire nation.
Currently, U.S. federal laws govern the possession and use of eagle feathers. However, they restrict ownership to individuals who can prove that they’re members of federally recognized tribes. Continued controversy surrounds these statutes, especially because those unable to document their Native ancestry are shut out of the process. A June 2015 Arizona Public Media piece also divulges that the waiting list for eagle feathers is lengthy, with potential recipients getting their requested feathers after several months.
A Magnificent Bird With Timeless Symbolism
The American bald eagle holds a distinctive place in many Indigenous American cultures. Once threatened with possible extinction, this species has made a major comeback over the last several decades. Contemporary legal realities pose challenges for Native people wishing to use their feathers for ceremonial and religious purposes. Nevertheless, reverence for the creatures continues into the 21st century.
Studying the Turtle Island story leads to some fascinating discoveries about both Indigenous peoples from the past as well as those in North America today.
Long before Canada became the country we know, Indigenous peoples flourished across the North American continent. From the Mi’kmaq groups near the shores of Cape Spear, to the Tlingit living around Mount Saint Elias, many distinct cultures descended from this land’s earliest inhabitants. As they developed into the Inuit and First Nations civilizations that were present when Europeans first arrived, some of these cultures told creation stories about a land known as Turtle Island. Studying the Turtle Island concept and story leads to some fascinating discoveries about both Indigenous peoples from the past, as well as those in North America today.
The Origins of Turtle Island
Multiple Indigenous civilizations told stories in which the known world was called “Turtle Island.” The Turtle Island Native Network retells one common version from the Onondaga, one of the five original Iroquois nations. In many versions of the story, the ancient world is entirely comprised of oceans. Sky Woman falls through a hole in the heavens that was left behind from an uprooted tree. In their attempt to save her life, the creatures living in Earth’s waters dive deep beneath its surface to retrieve some dirt upon which she can stand. Turtle volunteers to carry the dirt on his back, completing Sky Woman’s rescue.
While the Iroquois versions are the most widely known, several other cultures’ mythos also contain Turtle Island stories:
The Lenape people of the Northeastern Woodlands region
Anishinaabe civilizations such as the Ojibwe and Potawatomi, and Algonquin
Cheyenne cultures in the Great Plains region of the United States
While the concept of a massive turtle carrying the world on its back can also be found in older Sanskrit and Chinese texts, it holds the most prominent place among Indigenous American groups. Furthermore, the Mayans developed a similar myth about Zipacna, a conceited and violent oversized crocodile thought to carry their land on his back and cause volcanic and seismic activity as he moved. In contrast, Turtle Island legends tend to portray the giant turtles as helpful, benevolent beings.
Turtle Island in a Modern Context
Within the last few decades, “Turtle Island” has grown beyond a concept from Indigenous mythology and morphed into one with deeper symbolic meaning. Citing the desire to reclaim older cultural roots and acknowledge the sovereignty of Native civilizations prior to European colonialism, some use the term Turtle Island instead of North America. The America name originally derived from Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, but there were Native civilizations living in these lands long before Vespucci started exploring. The Manataka American Indian Council explains that some Indigenous people also use the term “Niiji” to refer to themselves in place of the word “Indian,” the latter being a moniker mistakenly given to Natives by Europeans believing that they’d landed in India.
The term “Turtle Island” has fallen into more widespread use as it’s being increasingly linked to Indigenous civil rights and environmental activism. One example mentioned in a June 2017 CBC article cites a grassroots group of First Nations activists mentioning “a crisis situation…on Turtle Island.” The activists staged a protest, calling for Canadians to address deeper issues from assimilation, colonization, and colonialism as Canada Day approached. Additionally, Native organizations such as the Indigenous Environmental Network and initiatives like the Turtle Island Solidarity Journey continue to focus on solutions to climate change while drawing attention to their connections to colonialism and environmental racism.
An Old Legend With New Interpretations
Indigenous cultures across North American either developed their own cosmogonic mythos to explain the universe’s origins or borrowed these beliefs from their neighbors. Within many of these civilizations, Turtle Island began as a creation story. With the impacts of European colonialism leading to both modern environmental concerns and civil rights issues, Turtle Island now holds potent symbolic meaning for many Indigenous people today.
